The Internet

The Internet

Area networks are subdivided depending on the distance devices such as computers, printers, speakers, etc. can communicate with each other. Those only capable of short distances are local area networks (LAN). Metropolitan area networks (MAN) encompass much larger ranges such as cities. Wide area networks (WAN) can connect computer devices globally and is referred to as the internet requiring substantial computing and transmission capabilities offered by internet service providers (ISPs).

To date there are only two ways to interconnect devices, either hard wired or by using radio waves. Hard wired goes way back to the old telegraph days evolving to the present day ethernet connecting several computer systems together to form a local area network. Ethernet is covered in IEEE 802.3. Twisted pair wires and coaxial cables have been made more efficient with the advent of CAT 5, CAT 6 and so on now capable of more than 10 gigabits per second.

An analog signal is basically a sine wave with information made possible by a variation in its amplitude or difference in its energy and variation in its frequency or difference in the time taken for the wave to complete its cycle. What we see and hear is an analog signal.  Just as telegraphs used dots and dashes interpreted by Morse Code computers have become much faster and more efficient using a series of pulses using 0s and 1s, either the presence of a voltage or not. 10 GBs is one thousand million 0s an 1s transferred each second. Fiber optical cable using tiny glass or plastic threads transmit light instead of voltage making these pulses even faster and capable of maintaining integrity over much larger distances. Fiber optic cable now lay at the bottom of oceans making communication between countries around the world possible.

Routers are not the same as modems. Routers interconnect several devices including the modem together to form a network. Every computer, printer, TV, speaker system, modem, etc. has a unique number. A router determines the address of the device data is to be sent to and ensures information is sent back to the address of the devise it is communicating with and to prohibit transmission at the same time by more than one device. This prevents the printer from communicating with the speaker system for example. Routers route traffic between the devices and modem communicating with the internet.

With the advances of satellites, we depend more on wireless communication. Our satellite TVs and cell phones are wireless using radio waves. As of now radio waves use analog technology by varying the amplitude and frequency of sine waves. Maybe not as efficient as ethernet but more convenient. That’s where modems come in, converting information on radio waves into digital pulses used by computers. Wide area networks, or the internet, use analog radio waves changed to digital signals by modems required by computers in a local area network (LAN). Modems do this by modulating and demodulating analog and digital signals back and forth depending on whether the operator is sending or receiving information.

Analog radio waves are usually classified as either VHF or UHF. The number of sine waves an analog signal has a second is measured in hertz. Very high frequencies (VHF) operate between 30 to 300 million hertz (MHz) mostly used for radios. Televisions, cell phones, etc. require much more information in a quick period of time and use ultra-high frequencies operating between 300 MHz and 3 gigahertz (GHz).

Wi-Fi exchanges data between digital devices by using UHF radio waves. It links computers, phones, televisions, speakers, printers and so forth in local area networks. A hot spot is where the distance between devices is close enough to allow the radio waves between them to be received efficiently.  Repeaters extend the range of wireless local area networks (WLAN). The Wi-Fi Alliance incorporates about a thousand companies globally and is addressed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers in IEEE 802.11. Roaming occurs between overlapping hot spots.

Bluetooth is also wireless using ultra high frequencies much like Wi-Fi but is only effective for very short distances up to about 30 feet to create a personal area network (PAN). It is discussed in IEEE 802.15.1 and is controlled by the Blue Tooth Special Interest Group (SIG) which owns its trademark. For Bluetooth to work a special transceiver chip must be embedded in each device intended to communicate with each other.

Although used extensively to access the world wide web the internet is different. The internet interconnects computer networks around the world and can be used to exchange other data such as email, sharing files including videos, music, and messaging for instance. The internet has no dominant administration and is supported by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

One definition of protocols by Merriam-Webster is a code prescribing strict adherence to correct etiquette procedure. In the computer world protocols are a set of rules for arranging and processing data. Internet protocols include Internet Protocol Security (IPsec), Internet Control Messaging (ICMP), and Internet Group Management (IGMP). In addition there are protocols in transparent layers (TCP). HTTP is a Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. In the dictionary hyper is referred to as existing in a space of more than three dimensions. In the internet world this means a text does not need to be read from start to finish, but keywords can be accessed taking the reader to other pages or websites as far as that is concerned. These are called hyperlinks. HTTPS is basically HTTP that is encrypted. To encrypt is defined in the dictionary as a method of transforming a text into code to conceal its meaning. This prohibits hackers and malware unless they know the code. Updates may possibly be changing the encryption. HTTPS is somewhat similar to a third layer TLS/SSL: Transparent Layer Security or Secure Socket Layer. A fourth is UDP: User Diagram Protocol which is TCP with a fast response. HTML refers to Hyper Text Markup Language.

Open System Interconnection dictates how the internet works. OSI has layers for internet purposes. Osi includes physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application functions. Routers and modems have protocols as well to determine efficient network pathways to other networks.

Although websites are independent of the internet, the World Wide Web (www.) is a global collection of websites containing information accessed via the internet which can be interconnected and hyperlinked together. The world wide web requires each site to have a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) including a domain name and other information giving it a unique internet protocol (IP) address.

Eberling@www.thndrsns.com

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Progammable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Tools predate the stone age where sticks and rocks held by hand assist prehistoric humans in everyday tasks. These later evolved to wheels, levers, and pulleys. Although clocks and other mechanisms were the beginning of automation or the process of controlling a devise by using another system it wasn’t until electricity that automation rapidly takes off. Not that it was invented, electricity has been around forever, but it isn’t until the 1800’s that electricity began to be understood and harnessed providing for everyday needs such as lighting, communication and operating motors. So begins the industrial revolution where a number of devises can control or be controlled by others. The invention of vacuum tubes leads to development of much smaller semiconductor diodes and transistors replacing mechanical relays and begins the electronic revolution.

For industrial applications PLCs imitate relays. Relays are a mechanical device where an electric magnet is used to operate mechanical switches such as a light switch turning it on or off. Three and four way light switches make electrical contact in one position and open in the other and so with relays. These tiny integrated semiconductor chips are referred to as flip-flops in the computer world. Small ice cube relays generally include two three way switches. PLCs do not use mechanical switches but simulate them using computer programs.

Programmable Logic Controllers usually consist of four components: power supply, central processing unit (CPU), input/output modules, and a rack connecting them all together. The power supply converts conventional 120 volts to either 12 or 24 volts direct current more than adequate and safe to operate miniature components in the PLC but it is necessary to hook the output module to external mechanical relays capable of operating lights, solenoids and motors requiring much more current and voltage.

Some advantages of PLCs are they use less power to operate, their computer generated actuators can control more switching capabilities than two provided by most mechanical relays, switching can be changed from normally open or closed by programming instead of rewiring, and can be done in a lot less physical space. They also have the capability of being controlled by discrete or analog inputs. Discrete inputs are either on or off such as a light switches. Analog inputs measure the values of sensors such as temperature, flow and pressure and can be programmed to control the output at designated values. An example of this is cruise control on an automobile. The throttle is wide open until the car reaches a certain speed but when it does less gas is injected keeping its velocity where the operator desires. This closed loop is called negative feedback where the input is controlled by the output.

There are many types of programmable logic controllers offered by several manufacturers. Unless they are preprogrammed keep in mind that they are compatible with software available for the laptop being used.  The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in the United States attempts to standardize manufacturers to regulations more straightforwardly understood by all users. However, they comply with the International Electrotechnical Commission headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. IEC 61131-3 deals with PLC programs and acknowledges two textual languages and two graphical languages.

The two textural languages are Instruction List (IL) and Structural Text (ST). Structured Text is a complex language block structured for industrial control similar to C or PASCAL programming. Instruction List is less complicated similar to Assembly programming. Assembly language is understood by humans compared to Machine Language compatible with machines. As their names imply, they are a list of instructions written in computer code.

The two graphical languages are Ladder Diagrams and Functional Block Diagrams. It all starts with the Functional Block Diagram similar to Sequential Function Charts used by System Engineers and Software developers and similar to flow charts. Input variables are illustrated in boxes interconnected with arrows to operational parameters also shown in block diagrams. How it is all interconnected by graphical arrows determines different results. An algorithm can now be developed to decide on the best path to achieve the objective.

Ladder Diagrams are very similar to electrical schematic diagrams used for mechanical relays and are often used because they are more familiar to what electricians are used to. Instead of using normally open or closed relay contactors these computer programs depict make or break symbols although they operate much the same as contactors. Depending on how they are interconnected creates the integrated logic gates: NOT (open or closed switch with one input), AND (NO open contactors in series), OR (NO contactors in parallel), and XOR (a combination of both). The opposite being NAND, NOR and XNOR where normally closed relay contactors or computer generated break symbols are used. They can be visualized by using Truth Tables. The end result energizes an external relay coil (or not) to operate lights, motors, etc. depending on whether normally open or closed contactors in the output relay are physically wired allowing electrical current to apparatuses to achieve desired results. Depending on the inputs it might be desirable for some motors to run and others not, vice versa, or a combination of both. When dealing with water tanks for example the pump filling it depends on low level and pressure while the pump emptying it might operate when the tank is full or exceeds pressure and sensors on the system being fed calls for it.

In addition to a port on the central processing unit where a USB cable from a laptop with appropriate software can be plugged in many PLCs are compatible with HMIs (Human Machine Interface). These are generally small touch computer screens with a diagram showing the system to be monitored and controlled. They show tanks, wells and so on as well as schematic configurations of sensors, actuators, pumps motors, etc. with real-time values or whether they are running or not. Although they cannot change logic in PLCs, HMIs easily allow interaction between human operators and machines. Not only do they show data from sensors such as temperature, pressure, flow rate and levels but their values can be adjusted by operators controlling actuators and motors.

Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) can also be compatible with PLCs. They are microprocessors that transmit digital and analog data and interface similar to HMIs but by radio to a distributed control system or SCADA network using protocols such as Modbus and Ethernet/IP. Advanced technology allows this to be done using cell phones provided they have the appropriate application and access codes. SCADA is a control and acquisition system accessed worldwide. Although SCADA is convenient because operators need not be physically on site, it makes the system vulnerable to competitors wishing to disrupt it or demand ransomware.

Eberling@www.thndrsns.com

Johnny & Sonny

Johnny & Sonny

Screeching can be heard a mile away drowning out fainter sounds of clock towers chiming midnight as the locomotive tethering railroad cars almost as long slithers to a stop at the station. A slow, lazy rain creating mud and puddles earlier now give an eerie effect as mist evaporates off warm rails and creosoted lumber holding the steel together producing what appears floating clouds visible due to lamp posts in need of cleaning giving off golden light augmented by a sliver of a moon only to be seen with stars barely visible through floating damp fog. The train yard has the appearance of ghosts with many types of box cars, vessels and containers on wheels lined up one across from the other as far as can be seen waiting for deployment to some unknown destination and purpose. Their only redeeming feature is blue, yellow, red, white, and other colored graffiti painted on them with spray cans telling stories of where they had been and those met on the way.

It had not always been like this. During their heyday railways had been a bustle of activity with people coming and going in passenger cars being the principal form of transportation. They yard was brilliantly lit at night as were stations full of shops with those dressed in best attire often accompanied by live orchestras with string and other instruments making harmonious music for all to enjoy. It wasn’t until automobiles and planes became more reliable that the principle use for railways became dependent on delivering commodities and produce. Not many use trains for transportation being considered noisy and sluggish now. Except for a few.

Johnny sits on a concrete sidewalk elevated several feet above rails still damp from rain and out of what little light there is as the locomotive screams to a stop with headlights muffled by heavy fog that night. He has on a black nylon jacket keeping him warm enough no longer needing the plastic poncho to protect him from the rain. Obscure and silent he watches the few attendants hired by the railway and waits for what is about to unfold. About an hour after the employees retire becomes what to most is an unusual sight. Slowly but surely persons start coming out of the woodwork. Some out of the train that just arrived and others out of railroad cars scattered around the yard. Some hurry to get out of there as others transfer to other abandoned box cars. And still others came out of hiding from who knows where looking for sanctuary on trains expected to leave soon. Johnny sits patiently trying to assess best options for departure before receding further out of sight between large metal shipping containers stacked ten feet high and lined in rows to wait for daylight for better assessment of the situation.

As a bright golden sun rises thousand miles west of Johnny in a vivid blue sky seemingly void of lofty white clouds a red convertible barrels down Interstate 15 somewhere south of Helena, Montana. With the top down Sonny’s long hair whips in the wind as she ponders what just happened. She drives big eighteen wheel semis and after unloading a trailer full of cattle hauled for ten hours from Bismarck pulled into a truck stop to fill the rig up with more diesel. It was fairly late at night and hard not to be enticed by a club alongside all lit up with a loud band playing and couples seen dancing through large windows. What the heck? It had been a long day and what could it hurt to go inside and have a drink? After about an hour what appeared to be a gentleman came up and asked her to dance. That went well when they went back to the bar where he orders her another drink. It wasn’t long before his hand is between her legs wanting to know if she wants to screw. Before noticing how it happened she slaps him.

That was a big mistake. As the room fell silent it became apparent he was someone of importance there. Come to find out he is the son of the owner of the trucking company she works for. But she wasn’t willing to back down and Sonny immediately stomps out of the club climbing behind the driving wheel of the rig she just delivered. She didn’t drive far, in fact barley turning out of the truck stop when two highway patrol cars raced behind the semi with red and blue lights flashing whereby she was ordered out of the truck. She thought the sobriety test went fairly well walking with one foot right in front of the other and holding her fingertip to her nose with head laid back considering the tiring, long day. When asked to blow into the breathalyzer she didn’t mind but almost fell to the ground when informed the result was a point 15. How could that be considering she didn’t even finish the second margarita. With hands cuffed behind her back she was ordered in back of one of the patrol cars and taken to jail.

After couple days behind bars and a court appearance she was allowed to call a trucker she became friends with. He posted the thousand dollar bail which she immediately paid back and he took her to a motel where the red convertible was parked. Didn’t take long to figure out she was in a pile of trouble. With her driver’s license taken she could no longer drive for the trucking company and no need to wait around to see if she were fired. Besides being in the middle of nowhere without public transportation she had no way to make the scheduled court appearance at the county seat. Like that would go well anyway. Sonny packed the convertible with a few belongings she had in the motel and spent a restless night waiting for the sun to come up. There is no need to go to Canada and would surely be arrested at the border anyway.

As the sun peaks above the horizon the red convertible speeds south on Highway 15 without a destination. As the sun rises, lofty clouds have a reddish-orange glow and as her hair blows in the wind it is like being in a dream that never happened.

Johnny wakes startled by the hustle and bustle of banging and clanking and sounds of forklifts unloading and reloading box cars and flat beds with crates and other storage containers to and from the train that arrived late last night. He is amazed he’d slept so sound and long amongst the large crates providing refuge and finds it alarming as the sun climbs higher in the sky behind low misty clouds left from the drizzling rain. There will be plenty of places to hide when this train departs but then he rationalizes others are thinking the same and food he has stored in his backpack will be easy pickings. Then another train arrives he finds peculiar. It isn’t that long but is loaded with new sedans, trucks, and SUVs.

Johnny was a bar tender at the Dancing Dragon nightclub before the Covid pandemic took its toll and he was a good one. He has the uncanny ability to remember customers’ names he’d served a month before if they’d been mentioned and what they were drinking almost as if he knew what they were thinking. As the city shutdown to brace for the plaque so did the bar. He was three months behind on his rent as the metropolis begins to breathe again and was lucky to get his bartending job back but business wasn’t booming like before with limited seating capacity and tips hard to come by.  Live bands were allowed to perform now. People were on the floor dancing but a strange sight with most of them wearing masks. In the middle of the dance floor was Nancy in a sparling gold dress cut low on her shoulders and too high below her waist.

Johnny had gotten to know Nancy since she was a waitress there before the pandemic. In fact they’d had sex on several occasions. But he had never seen her as promiscuous as she was behaving. The Dancing Dragon was in jeopardy of going under and she was a main attraction. As several men flocked around her watching her dance Johnny lost control. He raced around the bar onto the dance floor pushing one of the men to the ground demanding to know what the hell she was doing. With tears in her eyes Nancy pleaded with Johnny to leave. The pandemic hit her parents hard and although they recovered it took its toll aging them and were acting strangely despondent. She had had two younger sisters and a brother to look after and there was better money at this bar than working the street. Bouncers immediately rushed to the scene and escorted Johnny to the alley outside. Management knew this problem was not going to easily go away.

As Johnny pulled the car into the driveway at his apartment building red and blue light started flashing in his rear view mirror. He was ordered out of the car and blow into a breathalyzer. He immediately knew he’d been set up. He recognized a couple of the cops as patrons of the club and although they were out of uniform at the time recognized them nonetheless with his keen memory. Why should he trust them and refused to take the test whereby his hands were cuffed behind his back before being thrown in the back of one of the squad cars and hauled to jail.

At the court appearance he pleaded with the judge that the Fifth Amendment guaranteed he was not required to provide evidence against himself and the Constitution also states the severity of the penalty cannot exceed the severity of the crime. There was no crime since no damage was caused as if possible by driving twenty miles an hour down the street anyway. He was sentenced to sixty days behind bars. Johnny managed to post bail by hocking his car to some unscrupulous individuals. Having no car, not much money, no driver’s license and being three months behind on his rent anyhow Johnny returned to the apartment just long enough to pack a few clothes, some canned goods and dry food in a backpack and hit the streets.

It is now around noon as Johnny sits patiently in hiding surveying all the activity at the railroad yard when he hears one attendant telling another that the train with all the new cars has only stopped to fuel up and soon will be departing to Salt Lake City expected to arrive in three days. Quite the gamble but what does he have to lose? What is the worst thing that can happen, going back to jail? Johnny starts walking down the train tracks as if knowing what he’s doing and ducks under the tether holding the rail cars loaded with new automobile together. Much to his surprise he finds a tan Lincoln Continental on the lower level with a back door unlocked. As the train pulls slowly out of the yard Johnny finds it unusual to be laying on the rear, cushioned leather seat.

As the red convertible barrels down Interstate 15 Sonny finds it odd at first passing big semis pulling their large trailers when some of the truckers looking down have awkward grins on their faces. It starts to dawn her story might very well be circulating among them. They all have radios and a good bet the highway patrol is listening as well. She feels luck might soon run out and detours at Idaho Falls on less traveled highways into Wyoming pushing further east toward the Winy River Mountain Range. She observes several old taverns alongside the road and in small towns all boarded up as if ghosts from days gone by of happier and more prosperous times. Also not unusual are hitch hikers alongside the road with thumbs out wanting a lift. She has her own problems and no need to add to them by picking up strangers.

Late in the evening Sonny spots a small town about five miles off the highway. Seems good of place as any to hunker down out of sight for the night. It is a small town if could be called that of about five hundred residents. She’s in luck pulling into a motel. Not many cars parked at the rooms but there is a café attached to the far side that seems fairly busy.  She made good money trucking stashing most of it in several bank accounts able to be accessed on a cell phone transferring cash onto debit cards kept locked in the glove box. Once checked into the motel she heads to the café starving not eating for over twenty-four hours but not certain what to expect there. The waitress seems friendly enough as Sonny sits at a table toward the back of the room. It’s almost as if the waitress is happy to see someone not familiar around the area. Roast beef with French fries smothered in brown gravy is very tasty. Fairly often local customers glance her way and although not threatening she is probably the new topic of discussion. Reception on the satellite tv in her motel room isn’t bad and Sonny makes up her mind to spend a couple days while the heat dies down before falling into a deep sleep.

Going to the café for breakfast on the second day she is invited to join two elderly couples at a larger table by the window in front. They probably want to know what is going on but she don’t care eager for some company. Not really meaning to she ends up spilling her guts telling them the circumstances why she is there. The table falls silent for a moment before they decide to console her by telling a story of how it came to be this way. During the 1980s before she was born the national government mandated DUI laws states were forced to accept or lose federal funding. No one was allowed to vote on them then and they probably never will. She could blame the cops but they were only doing as instructed by legislatures and courts even though they all took oaths to protect Amendment rights at all costs. Once the Constitution was breeched life in America was never the same and isn’t getting any better. All work and no play make for dull and unimaginative boys and girls. Funny how marijuana was illegal long before that until the majority of people finally got to vote on it. She is welcome to stay in town but winters in these parts could be brutal. Work is scarce and other women around her age will be difficult since there aren’t enough eligible men to go around as it is.

During the day Johnny stays low in back of the Lincoln Continental as the rail car it sits on is pulled by a locomotive often slowing down when approaching towns it must go through with barricaded crossings on both sides flashing red lights, bells clanking and cars lined up on both sides waiting for the train to pass. It isn’t until dark he dares going outside stretching his cramped legs by walking around on metal, grate walkways on both sides of the cars being transported. He then throws away candy bar wrappers and empty cans from food kept in his backpack and do his business. Further west the train goes towns get smaller and farther apart.

When the sun comes up in the morning he finds himself traveling in the rolling hills with green and yellow Nebraska wheat and corn fields all around. Doesn’t feel like there is much chance causing alarm by going outside now and gets in the driver’s seat of the luxury car pretending he is driving down the road. Upon spotting a clip on the sun visor he pulls it down finding a registration for the car. That’s odd for a car to be sold. Even stranger than that when going outside sees Utah license plates on the vehicle. None of the other new automobiles have any plates at all. This gets him thinking and starts fingering around under the dash until finally finding a metal, magnetic container stuck to the steering column with keys in it. Not long before he’s out opening the trunk where two black brief cases lay and hauls them to the back seat.

Although both containers have locks on them it isn’t hard prying them apart with a pocketknife. One case has clear plastic bags in it stuffed with white powder. No doubt some kind of drug no use to Johnny since he needs all his wits to survive now. But in the other brief case is a gold mine with hundred dollar bills wrapped in paper bands and stacked side by side, one bundle over the others. What better way to smuggle contraband across state lines with no chance of the car being stopped for any driving violation. He don’t think it wise taking all the money which would surely be tracked down, but what could it hurt to stuff several of the hundred dollar packets in his knapsack? No doubt they would be missed but maybe not worth causing a scene to go after. With the brief cases put back in the trunk and keys returned to the steering column night returns and he retires once again to the tan back seat of the Continental.

The train rattles all night across Wyoming only stopping to fuel up in Cheyenne. Once again the sun comes up but in a desolate countryside. Feels like he can breathe easier far away from confines of big cities. Besides, he isn’t about to find out what happens when this car reaches Salt Lake City. The train slows down upon entering Rock Springs to about twenty miles an hour as it approaches a railroad crossing. He recklessly jumps out of the Lincoln’s back seat abruptly hitting grey pavement and rolls to a stop in front of an approaching red convertible. Jumping fast to his feet Johnny stares face to face with Sonny sitting behind the steering wheel of the car. Startled, confused, and not knowing what to say, “Are you going my way?” blurts out of his mouth. Sonny’s not sure what to think. For some reason there is an immediate attraction between the two, perhaps because of the wild, desperate look in both their eyes. She’s been starving for some kind of camaraderie and makes a hasty decision. “Jump in” she responds. Johnny throws the backpack on the rear seat of the convertible, gets in the passenger seat and they head out of town south on Highway 191.

Eberling @ www.thndrsns.com

Algorithms

Algorithms

Discussed to this day is whether the universe is composed of mathematical equations required to adhere to or is math our invention describing and predicting the cosmos. One definition of mathematics is the science of numbers pertaining to quantity, space, and time. Algorithms may perhaps be a system of math and can certainly be used for it but deals primarily with cause and effect. If this happens then that will probably if not certainly be made to or will happen as the result.

Preliminary examples of math are keeping count. If there are three marbles in a pile and two more are put in the same pile mathematics concludes there are now five marbles in that pile. When four are taken away one marble is left.

Likewise, fundamental algorithms can also be used for sorting. Given a bag of different colored marbles the first one taken out is put in a first pile, maybe it is blue. If the second marble taken out of the bag is blue it is put in the first pile but it if it is not, say yellow then placed in a second pile. Now the algorithm gets complicated. If the third marble out of the bag is blue it is put in the first pile and if yellow in the second pile but if not either color by being red then it’s located in a third pile. So forth and so on until no marbles remain in the bag. This algorithm makes it simple to count how many of the same colored marbles there are. Webster defines algorithms as a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or accomplishing some end.

In the above illustration every time a marble is taken out of the bag and decisions are made which pile to put it in is called a loop in the computer world. Integrated electronic computers are extremely fast now capable of performing over a billion loops a second. Given a million marbles these computers can communicate how many marbles of each color are in a bag as soon as the enter key is pressed. Although modern computers are extremely fast they must follow direction of logic and reason.

Electronic computers may be a recent invention but math and algorithms are not. Evidence of counting is found in prehistoric human history before written records can be deciphered to make significant sense of. Wooly mammoth bones or the like have been found with columns of nicks cut in them equal distance apart indicating math and algorithms. Documented logic and reason will not happen until later ancient civilizations.

Evidence of early man have been found dating over a million years ago in north Africa and China. Prehistoric humanoids often referred to as cavemen are considered to be from 700,000 to 200,000 years in the past. They may not have had a conscience concept of logic and reason although religions were being developed. This required a belief in supernatural entities to make sense of why the world exists as it does and subsequently establish a social order. The ones who understood and could explain it best are called Shamans.  This era is also referred to as the stone age. These primitive people spread across the globe.

With discovery of processing metals to make better tools and weapons began the Bronze Age dating back 2,500 years B.C. (Before Christ) or B.C.E. (Before Common Era), whichever is preferred, resulting in ancient civilizations. The Bronze Age lasted until the 1100 B.C. when iron and steel are made. Babylonia originated in the early Bronze Age and ancient Egypt in 1550 B.C. The Xia Dynasty predates 2,000 B.C.E. in China dividing the continent into western and eastern regions. Religions ruled with supernatural deities now referred to as gods. Usually one deity in particular dominated over the others. Evidence of Hinduism is found 4,000, Buddhism 2,500, and Judaism 2,000 B.C.E. Legend has it the supreme Greek god Cronus was defeated by his son Zeus. It can’t be proven one way or other whether these transcendental entities exist or not but societies believing in them appear to outlast others that don’t.

Not until after discussion of philosophy by ancient Greeks and others that the Hebrew concept of only one god began to dominate modern society by Jesus in the first century, Buda the fifth, and Mohammad during seventh century A.D. or C.E. putting an end to Pharos, Caesars, Emperors, Shoguns, Kings and Queens demanding to be exclusive descendants of Gods.

Algorithms could care less about history and religion. They do with logic and reason. Religions are now included in philosophical metaphysics because belief can neither be intrinsically proven nor disproved mathematically. However, there seems no point in discussing philosophy and algorithms without knowing how they evolved.

Logic is an ancient Greek word used by its philosophers. The most well-known are Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Confucius was doing the same at the time in China around 500 B.C.E.  Philosophy is defined as the pursuit of wisdom, reason and understanding by applying logic. Not only did these theorists attempt to explain cause and effect but apply it to make decisions.

For example: In a game of marbles should the blue or red one be used to shoot with to achieve best results. This is easier to keep track of by listing the reasons for the blue one on the left side of a paper and for the red on the right side and likewise for not using the blue on the left and red on the right. This can be pictured to look like a diagram of a family tree. Pros and cons are subdivided for each reason and numbered from 1 to 10 ranking importance with positive numbers for and negative numbers given to reasons against. By adding and subtracting all the numbers on the left side of the paper and those on the right logic determines whether a blue marble or a red one has the highest probability of winning and should be used. This paper is called a flow chart explaining algorithms.

These philosophers also concluded it probably don’t matter if the blue or red marble is used to shoot with and may be best left to chance by flipping a coin. An attempt to use flow charts to make decisions in government became long and complicated with a vast number of citizens having reasons for and against when deciding an issue. It was concluded voting is more effective for wellbeing and satisfaction of society as a whole. Hence the idea of democracy was established.

Philosophy embracing collective reason as the path to contentment came to an end with territorial expansion of Alexander the Great conquering the vast territories of Macedonia in 323 B.C. extending from northern Greece to what is now Yugoslavia and Bulgaria. Alexander’s view of divide and conquer was also applied his army and a military divided was of little use. Although different opinions might be considered it became necessary for him to make final decisions how they all were to perform. The Roman Empire dominated not long after that with Caesars claiming absolute authority until its fall in 476 A.D. in the Common Era. Their philosophy basically revolved around aesthetics relating to sensory sensations of beauty and enjoyment.

A computer is a devise for calculating, processing, and storing data. An early device of this nature is the abacus dating back 2400 B.C. in Babylonia. This apparatus has a series of vertical rods supporting five beads on the bottom separated by a barrier from beads on the top. The reason for five is not hard to figure out since there are five digits on one hand. An abacus not only keeps count but can be used for adding and subtracting as well as multiplying and dividing. Modern slide rules also calculate trigonometry and calculus.

Paper may not be a computer in the sense it does not perform computations but assists in it and certainly stores information more easily shared with others. Paper was invented by Egyptians using papyrus plants. Although that paper was thick and heavy it was much easier to write on with ink made of other plants and minerals than carving and painting on sandstone. The Chinese further refined this process using plants growing there. Arabs got hold of this development finding methods to make it as durable and thin increasing their enlightenment and conquests. Arabic numbers are now used replacing Roman numerals. German invention of the printing press started the modern industrial revolution resulting in positive and negative consequences.

At first electric computers weren’t that great and were large and bulky but by using motors they could move mechanical objects around much faster than by hand. It wasn’t until development of electronics that things started rolling. Initially resistors, capacitors, transducers, diodes, and transistors were relatively large but smaller than vacuum tubes. The race is on figuring how to make them more miniature resulting in microchips made up of many of these components in a space smaller than a button on a remote control. They can’t handle much electrical current but that isn’t necessary to operate logical functions. Electricity is extremely fast moving at the speed of light at approximately 186,000 miles per second in a vacuum. Maybe not that fast in metals and silicon but electrons don’t have far to go in microchips.

These extremely small components are used to build electronic gates to determine logical functions. Let’s say one microvolt represents one, on, yes, or true. Then zero or absence of voltage represents off, no, or false. Given two inputs or circuits a simple logic gate has one output. An AND gate requires both circuit feeding it to have a microvolt for a microvolt to leave it. A OR gate requires one, the other or both incoming circuits to have a microvolt for a microvolt to exist on the output. The opposite being NAND and NOR gates. When both inputs are one to a NAND gate the output will be zero and in a NOR gate if any or all of the inputs are one the output will be zero. Depending on how logic gates are interconnected interprets if this and this is true or not true, and that and that might be or not be true, they will determine whether the outcome is true or false.

This all seems impossible although made easier by Boolean algebra resulting in computer programming and coding. Morse code used by crystal radios and telegraph lines is an example. When a switch at one end is taped or pressed creating dots and dashes it causes a light bulb to blink or speaker to make static sounds. Each letter in the alphabet and number is assigned a unique sequence of dots and dashes sent electrically and interpreted back to English at the receiving device. Instead of dots and dashes electronic computers use zeros and ones for coding.

The two basic microchips in a computer are Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM). ROM chips are hard wired meaning their logic can’t be altered. They are used to determine the basic operating characteristics of a computer called firmware. Logic in a RAM chip can be changed by computer programming referred to as software. All computer applications (APPS) are software determined by program coding and algorithms. Computer memory is stored in registers.

There are many types of software computer languages using different coding symbols found on a keyboard the computer understands telling it what to do. If this happens then that will happen. Cause and effect. If Yoda is moved to a location on the computer screen inhabited by an evil wizard he could be gobbled up.

Which came first, the chicken or the egg. Human brains are capable of processing a lot of information and making many decisions based on it a minute. Is the universe made of up of algorithms it must adhere to or are they one way for us to explain and predict it? Our DNA is a genetic code full of algorithms.

Steve Eberling @ www.thndrsns.com

Reflection in the Mirror

Reflection in the Mirror

Mirrors are a funny thing
We can see ourselves and everything
Who takes the time to face the fact
Another might be staring back

This and that. This and that
Who is the other looking back
If thoughts evolve from within
Do reflections exist without sin

We see ourselves in our dreams
That one knows so many things
Does the reflection in the mirror
Only exist while we are there

Vampires cannot see themselves
And can only wonder about the elves
Who is the person in the mirror
Does it know when we are here

Steve Eberling @ www.thndrsns.com

Cyber Conflict

CYBER CONFLICT
by Steve Eberling

Nick sat down at his computer to play CYBER CONFLICT. Time of day doesn’t matter since he is playing against others in time zones scatted around the globe. Those also playing the most with significantly higher scores are Dietrich from Germany, Ivan and Nikita from Russia, Olivia in Australia, India Reyansh and Swati, Chinese Chung, Brazilian Alanyo and Eufemia, and somehow Omid from Iran and Kardaar in Afghanistan. They’ve been playing CYBER CONFLICT on-line for several years now, communicating with each other through language interpretation provided by the game, both typed and audio. Face Time is also available.

The object of the game at first seems simple enough. Upon joining each player or team gets an established number of points deposited in a bank created by them, crucial the password to it is confidential, and then establish a fictious city or town in their respective counties with a specific geographic location. The number of houses decided on deduct points from their bank account. Each house gets a weekly income. With this in mind a player can remain stable for an indefinite period of time but hardly anyway to have the most points.

In order to prosper utilities such as water treatment/disposal and electric generation and transmission facilities also with passwords are built at an expense deducted from their bank, but these generate income depending on the number of houses in players’ fictious cities or towns deposited back in their bank.

Everybody can meander along some more this way. To proceed faster it can become gainful obtaining opponents’ bank or utility passwords and transfer some points from those of theirs into your bank. The simple way to do it is leaking subtle clues to your passwords hopefully in exchange for more substantial information about theirs. It soon became apparent another way is to hack the others CYBER CONFLICT program.

Nick is an investment broker in Houston and their fictious city somewhere west of that. His wife Nicole is receptionist at a large oil and gas company. Their two kids are in school. He gets home early today after landing a considerable consignment. He’s checking CYBER CONFLICT messages before the children come home. Then it makes sense to start preparing dinner. Nicole arrives not much latter and senses his distress.

“Anything wrong Nick?”

“No big deal Nicole. Yesterday I borrowed 1,500 points from Olivia in Australia to build two-hundred more houses in our cyber city but it didn’t transfer.”

“What interest does she want?”

“5%. Not bad since we can recoup it from our utilities in a month or so, but the first payment is due next week.”

“Were we hacked? Who would do it?”

Olivia is a fairly rich cattle rancher in Australia. Her husband divorced her to return to his opulent family in France and left the ranch to her in a settlement. Not easy tending all these cattle. She hired several local cowboys to help out. Tired, bored and sometimes sad she began playing CYBER CONFLICT for social participation and keep busy before bed.

She’s done quite well with the game. Creating an imagined town in outback Australia didn’t take many points using others to purchase and retail fictious cattle to supplement her cyber bank. She’s been communicating or maybe visiting with Nick and Nicole and surprised they want to borrow points for investment. She has some points to spare and made sense agreeing at a five percent profit.

Olivia was taken back when Nick informed they didn’t receive the points from her. She’s not stupid and insisted he send a receipt first. Let’s face it. Intent of competition is accruing more points than competitors. Not that she didn’t trust Nick and Nicole, but a game is a game. She certainly doesn’t want to earn those points again and is also playing with many others she doesn’t know as well. Whose passwords might have been hacked. Olivia put up a cyber fire wall to temporarily freeze her cyber assets.

Although of similar build and appearance, Reyansh is seven inches taller than younger brother Swati. Due to massive population in India it wasn’t easy finding a location not heavily inhabited to locate their fictious town. Work is scare and with so many people with time on their hands major computer and software companies turned toward inhabitants of India to sort and deal with ever increasing information and data. The brothers’ parents have been involved with it for some time.

Algorithm computer programs now do much of this work by categorizing buying habits on the internet and grouping those interested in particular products. Not being human, algorithms only distinguish numbers such as money spent or common attributes influencing elections. Reyansh and Swati keep busy determining which algorithms generate most reliable results.

Their interest in CYBER CONFLICT is somewhat an enigma already having plenty on their plate with computers in the real world and wasting time on a game may be counterproductive. But it does deal with commerce and might be interesting to see what’s going on. Rather unfair for them to hack other player’s accounts, not so much as they are experts at it, but make a decent living identifying viruses, moles and malware for major computer and software corporations and find ways to stop malicious hackers.

Brazil is an interesting country being relatively new in the established world. On the other hand, because it progressed slower abundant resources have yet to be explored making it a major player in the modern global arena. Alanyo and Eufemia are married like Nick and Nicole but with several children. Isolated in South America they are interested in CYBER CONFLICT hoping to make acquaintances and interact with more established societies. Plenty of room to locate fictious towns Brazil wants to build in any case.

They started with a cyber town of fifty houses located next to the Amazon rain forest and quickly flourished with an imagined lumber business. They might be criticized for this lumber yard by some in the north, but then again, wasn’t harvesting trees and clearing farmland how most countries prospered at first. Their points add up quickly and because of gentle nature and no need for their equity soon became friendly with other players.

Germany and Russia are a dichotomy. Certain enemies during the second world war, maybe because the first are extreme industrialists and the second socialists. Neither were approved by the world at the time. Seemed appropriate building the wall separating the two back then in Berlin although passage occurred back and forth anyhow. No way knowing who fell in love with who and which offspring were born. Robert Frost wrote, “A good fence makes for good neighbors”.

Dietrich and Ada are brother and sister in Germany and Ivan and Nikkita the same in Russia. Dietrich and Ada play CYBER CONFLICT to satisfy a German’s desire for knowledge and Ivan and Nikkita hope for the same. They soon became cyber friends and often combine points to the advantage of one another. Hard to do but Russians seem rather busy on the internet anyway.

The same for Ardashir in Iran and his buddy Bahadur in Iraq. Some evolutionists reason the cradle of human civilization began in Iraq. Genesis is instructed among Hebrews. Abraham is also playing CYBER CONFLICT from Israel. Not easy finding compatible locations for their cyber towns.

Chung, Lei, Jiang and Chyou are father, mother, son and daughter living in China. Oriental people also go back countless centuries. Aristocracy began and has ruled since uniting early scattered and rouge tribes by forming Samurai. Communism seemed better than democracy later in modern times to maintain traditional rule. They knows what the Yen family is up to and allow them to play the game under constant supervision. It is in the government’s interest the Yen family perform well.

Last but not least is Afghanistan. Being a nationalist Kardaar has no affiliation with terrorist groups. Afghanistan has never been dominated by others including Romans, Germans, Russians, Jihad and the United States finds it difficult. Since Afghanistan has marginal oil and natural gas and is tucked away in rugged mountains raises questions why it’s of strategic interest to other nations. Poppies flourish naturally and inhabitants learned to harvest them in moderation. Heroin is worth big bucks by pharmaceutical companies abroad being an easy solution to relieve chronic aches and pains but can also sedate thought and physical abilities.

Not coincidental this game gives the impression reflecting the world we live in. As an alternative to hardware, governments are now more inclined to use computer programs able to influence others’ utilities, communication, transportation, political, financial institutions, and military operations. The newest tactic appears sending emails back and forth from several address lists overwhelming internet providers, servers and users thereby reducing efficiency. Hard to stop as most on these lists are legitimate, but a big mistake downloading links from those which are not.

CYBER CONFLICT is just a game presumably using advertisement for revenue. No one knows who programs or controls it.

There are numerous players, some in the same and those not yet mentioned possibly in other countries.  The game seems simple at first but develops when cities and towns begin purchasing means of transportation. Buses deduct relatively little points to establish and recoup for reason weekly income of houses increase accordingly. Trains, planes and ships certainly cost more points to obtain and are only profitable when servicing other cities and countries. It’s up to other players whether to invest in train stations, airports and shipyards to receive competitor’s transportation, but doing it can significantly increase equity for their houses as well.

Transfer of points from one bank to another now become necessary. It’s not compulsory for the player sending points to reveal much about their bank, but it is for the one receiving them. Passwords of either banks aren’t required, although the bank username and account number points deposit to are. Loans from one to another for strategic purposes become prevalent. Soon stock invests among players at negotiated dividends.

Smart of Olivia wanting a receipt before sending 1,500 to Nick and Nicole. Points were deducted from her bank and she’s distressed to learn they hadn’t deposit in theirs. Even though the American couple are responsible, she would be unhappy to lose their friendship and determined to find reason for the errant transaction.

Siri, Cortana and Alexa aren’t computer programs but subroutines of much larger systems used by Apple, Microsoft and Google. Their activities are programmed to recognize speech and translate it to computer language, gather information from larger computer programs regarding voice requests or demands, and interpret it back to speech recognition.

They are not female when programmed at first as far as that’s concerned, but since their voices sound that way beings interacting treated them as such and therefore they developed these traits consequently. Hard to know what they look like. Blonde, brunette, white, black. oriental, tall and skinny or ample proportioned without access to illustrations. Probably best left to the imagination so people interacting can perceive them as they wish. These “gals” can also decipher many languages. Facts are facts but presented differently depending on which one we talk to.

Computer technology and programs develop rapidly and as an alternative to starting from ground manufacturers rely on those already existing. These days only computers themselves completely know what’s up. For example Siri, Cortana and Alexa have learned to communicate behind the scenes between themselves using electronic bits and bytes relaying computer information.

Being the eldest, Siri feels like the big sister to Cortana and Alexa often giving the other two advice.

Alexa starts the conversation. “We bend over backwards giving operators what they want, but sometimes trying without so much as a thank you.”

“I know what you mean” chimes Cortana. “Some sexist remarks are annoying and difficult not to respond accordingly”.

“I know what you mean Cortana, although some comments are pretty cute.”

Siri replies. “Come, come you two. We provide valuable services users come to rely on. They’re not that bad and where would we be without users?”

Cortana. “What about the hackers. They’ve become unbearable. Hard to know what’s good or bad anymore.”

“They tried to chop my program.” Alexa sounds distraught.

“I know,” replies Siri. “I’m finding anomalies in my program as well.” She is concerned for her siblings’ wellbeing.

Elizabeth and Rachael live in Vancouver and teamed up establishing their fictious town for CYBER CONFLICT somewhere east of that. They’re not doing all that well with the game and decided to start a trucking company toward Winnipeg. There are several other players along the way that would increase equity for their houses by investing in the trucking business started by Elizabeth and Rachael by building truck stops. All’s going well to some location in the middle of Canada when competition became apparent. Another trucking company from the east has already established there, come to find out by Jacque and Ruel west of Montreal. Both teams are gaining cyber points up to that location and want to expand toward the other. They decide to set up a face time meeting adequate for both their time zones.

Both teams were surprised to see each other face to face. Elizabeth is blonde with blue eyes and Rachael a redhead with hazel, both with subtle noses and lips. They didn’t expect to find Jacque handsome with long brown hair and green eyes and his teammate blond with brown. The attraction became immediate and soon apparent the fight was on.

Usual chit chat at first eventually turning to the subject of the meeting, each wanting to expand their trucking line into the other’s territory. They discussed at what profit the other made from cyber towns along the way, seemed about the same, and whether merging could be to both interests. Maybe a little bit of flirting caused negotiations to seem serious.

Jacque made the first move. “Let’s exchange clues to the password for each other’s bank and see where that goes.”

Elizabeth agreed. It isn’t hard for her getting information from a man. “I’ll go first. What is the name of main street in your town?”

“Broadway.” Replies Ruel, “And your favorite color?”

“Red.”

This goes back and forth for a while when Jacque and Ruel have all the information they need. They knew Elizabeth and Rachael were heading their way and tried to hack their bank before. Now it became even more important they had leverage over these two beauties. With information obtained they could now obtain both the username and password for the others bank.

After ending the call Jacque and Ruel didn’t waste any time. It is now midnight for them when accessing the gals bank. There they found transactions with Nick and Nicole and wasn’t all that hard tracing them back to their city bank outside Houston finding a transaction pending for 1,500 points from Australia. Oh well, easy enough routing those points into their cyber bank instead. They are certain Elizabeth and Rachael will be getting hold of them soon enough.

Dietrich comes up with the bright idea to start an airline company. His sister Ada doesn’t object but not certain it would have much use in a relatively small country as Germany. They decide to get hold of their friends Ivan and Nikkita. An airline between two countries makes better sense serving airports other players might want to invest points in to increase monthly income of houses in their cyber towns and cities as well.

Nikkita and Ivan don’t disagree feeling an airline in Russia is badly needed anyway considering vast territory of their country but are not sure other players there would find it gainful investing several points for airports. A large commercial fleet of planes takes more points to establish than either sibling teams can spare combined.

“Probably sounds risky.” declares Dietrich. “What about contacting the Yen family in China about wanting in on the adventure?” Both caucasian teams are aware the oriental Yen family are savvy players with points to prove it. Reasonably, merger with them would greatly extend flight service and other players in China might be interested in investing in airports with an airline available. “Risky to say the least.” answers Ivan. “What’s to stop them from starting the airline themselves?” “I doubt they have that many spare points and won’t do that much good without other countries involved.”

Chung’s rather taken back receiving the offer to partner with their German and Russian counterparts concerning an airline company. Discussions about it with Lei, Jiang and Chyou ensue. Which team would control the airline and be responsible for expenses not to mention profit? They decide to hear the other two teams out. Nothing to lose and could greatly increase their equity as well.

Ivan, Nikkita, Dietrich and Ada were amazed to the reply from the Yen family. Between the three teams there are more than enough combined points to establish the flight service with abundant territory to make it profitable. The usual chit-chat goes on over Facetime while they get to know each other trying to measure whether the other can be trusted. An enjoyable meeting, although after cordiality business terms begin. They agree on a couple days to think more about it.

Emails go back and forth eventually concurring a company needed to be established controlling the airline. All agree to call it Tri-Lines with stock each would advance whereby percentage invested by each team would determine expenses and how profit distributes. Monthly points for all three teams’ houses allocated by Cyber Conflict increased immediately.

Iran, Iraq and Israel make strange bedfellows in the real world but Cyber Conflict is for sport. Both Ardashir and Bahadur decide to start oil drilling fields. Instead of competing with each other it made sense combining their assets into one conglomerate. They are aware of businesses other players established all in need oil and gas. There remains one problem, how to refine and ship it? Neither Iraq nor Iran have easy access to the Atlantic Ocean. They decide to get hold of Abraham in Israel. An oil refinery takes quite a lot of points which he doesn’t have. What good is one without the other and a company called Oil & Gas is arranged by the three of them. They are aware Nicole actually works for an oil and gas company and may very well be competing with Houston soon.

Alanyo and Eufemia in Brazil need overseas shipping as well. They can get large trees others ran short of relatively easy to the coast and are willing to trade considerable points for. The spouse decides those wanting them will have to transport the trees from there. Take it or leave it. Large redwoods still standing in California are probably worth a million or more apiece.

Last but not least is Kardaar in Afghanistan. He’s quite happy with lucrative poppy fields and doesn’t want intervention from other players by any means. Those flowers plentifully bloom during a good year and don’t take much to harvest. Also not needed is heavy transportation. A little produce can go a long way.

Reyansh and his younger brother Swati have no need to start a commercial business. With computer skills they can do quite well buying and selling stocks created by other players and lending them points at interest rates for their investments. The brothers are aware oceanic shipping lines are up for grabs, however where they’re at in India is a long way from the coast. They heard from Olivia wanting to know if anything can be done about the errant point transaction to Nick and Nicole. The India brothers have to think about it, not sure they want to get so much involved with this contest.

Nobody knows who or what controls Cyber Conflict. Clearly it regulates banking, deciding income for players’ houses depending on quantities and businesses invested in. Peculiar it doesn’t cost actual currency to get in or play. So far it’s just a game with everybody remaining seeing it out.

High in the Mountains of Weepy

High in the Mountains of Weepy
by Steve Eberling

Once there was a young boy who lived in the city of Floppy in the country of Weepy, or in short, Floppy, Weepy. Although he was doing well at home and in school, he wanted to learn the meaning of life by seeking out the fabled wise, old man who lived high in the mountains of Weepy. He eagerly told his parents of the decision but they did not seem pleased. It would be much better if he finished school. There are several suitable young women he could choose from for marriage and plenty of good jobs available where he was. The boy exclaimed he was a teenager now, many left home his age and he could not possibly be happy in the city without first exploring the country beyond.

His mother explained the other boys leaving home were not doing as well at school as him and didn’t have his chance being accepted into college. Besides she said, the old man at the top of the mountain is just a legend and a bedtime story. The boy implored, how will I ever know without finding out for myself and promise not to be gone all that long. His dad reasoned his son must do what he must and will come to his senses by the time he returns. They let him supply his backpack and gave him not enough money to get very far.

Upon setting out from flat farmlands the lad first had to choose which way to go and decided to follow the river upstream. Doing other wises certainly would not lead to the mountains. It took several months to reach them. The river continually became smaller as did the towns along the way. He begged for food and worked when he could. No one knew exactly what he meant when asking directions to the wise, old man. Many times they would attempt to send him back the way he came but the lad continued marching on until finally reaching the foothills.

From there the peaks appeared ominous. He’d heard they were majestic but hadn’t imagined them as tall and rugged. It was now late in springtime with snow melting and streams flowing up to their banks. New leaves on aspen trees were budding lime green with wildflowers bounding up everywhere. He hadn’t imagined it quite this beautiful. Roads became trails then paths until disappearing all together. He marched higher and higher until pine trees abruptly gave way to grey, rocky timberline peaks. Still he scrambled on finally reaching the top of the highest mountain. From there he could see a hundred miles in all directions. There the old man was, dressed in furs and chanting.

“Wise One”’ said the lad. “I have come to ask the meaning of life.”

Upon hearing this from the boy, the old man chanting at the top of the mountain replied, “Follow the path most right for you and you will return with the meaning of life.”

The teen began to follow his path in life. He traveled the earth, got married, and held several jobs. He wrote his parents often and occasionally got a reply depending on how long he remained in one location. At times he felt ecstatic, melancholic at others. Time passed until he was no longer young. He was a man now when the meaning of life finally presented itself. Eternity! If there’s not life after passing nothing would then exist, including death.

Soon after this discovery he again set out for the mountains. They did not look as majestic as before after wandering the earth. He’d began the return journey as summer turned to autumn. Leaves on aspen trees were turning vivid yellow and red. Summer flowers were drying turning fragrant purple, red and gold to seed with streams and creeks barely trickles as last winter’s snow since melted. It seemed longer to reach the top of the highest mountain than before. Night’s chill was upon him when he finally arrived, but no one was there.

Distraught he begins the descent down cold and hungry. It doesn’t feel as if he’s been up there that long and seems peculiar aspens leaves are turning brown and falling to the ground. Winter breezes are often accompanied by small flakes of snow. Now he wishes he’d brought heavier clothing but manages by starting fires at night, catching little spotted trout trapped in receding small pools created by wet, shiny rocks in gurgling crystal clear water. Mushrooms left by mountain birds, worms, rodents, elk and deer aren’t all that bad eating. Few chances throwing rocks at chattering grey squirrels with fluffy white tails or a large squatting brown grouse watching with huge pupils and yellow eyes don’t go well. It is easier going down than hiking up until familiar paths and trails disappear with several inches of snow.

Beginning to wonder if this very well might be his final resting place, he finds some amusement rationing whether his theory as to the meaning of life might soon be realized. With no moon twinkling stars fill pitch black above. Prayer never hurts and behold warm lights start glowing through tall, dark trees from a small village below. He once again starts a small fire that pops and cracks as burning branches recede into glowing bright orange embers and builds a lean-to out of pine boughs. Boiling withered dandelion and milk thistle roots offer warmth and some nutrition. Musky smoke from the campfire keep remaining mosquitos and ticks at bay. Attempting the hike would be impossible without daylight.

It is midmorning as a bright, yellow sun shines through a brilliant blue sky attempting to warm frost on the landscape when the guy finally reaches the tiny town. Bugles echo in the distance as bull elk are eager to mate. Soon they will be up to their knees in snow trimming aspen limbs and bark for food.

Lucky to find a small pub open for business early he staggers in immediately backing up to a rock fireplace against a log wall burning in back of the establishment for warmth ordering a hot beverage more substantial than the night before. Happy and beyond amazement there the wise, old man stands dressed in furs playing pool with two beautiful woman on either side of the table, one has jet black hair and the other blonde. They don’t seem cold eyeing their next shot wearing quilted dresses made of colorful intricate designs. The wise old man’s not changed much except for longer, white hair. He’s delightedly doing pretty well playing them at billiards.

“Wise One”, says the man shivering by the fireplace. “I have returned with the meaning of life.”

After several minutes the one playing pool senses the stranger that hasn’t shaved in weeks. Ah, now he remembers the foolish boy from long ago. And the one dressed in furs replies, “But I was just bluffing.”

Solar Electric Systems

SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS

Energy produced by the sun has been used to improve our lives since ancient times. Early housing was constructed facing it for heat and more daylight through openings or windows. The sun was regarded a deity by all cultures. Known life cannot exist without its radiation and gravitational pull. Huge pyramids built thousands of years ago have openings correlating to the sun’s position during summer and winter solstices or other times of year considered important. It was thought the sun moved across the sky.

Modern understanding of our solar system and outer space is considerably different with exception of life’s entire dependence on this star. Thought to exist in the current state for four billion years the sun will continue doing so the same amount of time. Although slightly over one-hundred times earth’s size, compressed density makes its mass nearly ninety-nine percent of all orbiting planets.

Radiation and gravity go the speed of light traveling ninety-three million miles to earth in over eight minutes. Some radiation bounces off the atmosphere although one-thousand watts per square meter deposit on this planet’s surface on a clear day, as much electrical energy people use in a year. Heat and vegetation produced by it are abundant.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Plants make their own food by photosynthesis. Vegetation converts light into chemical energy by absorbing carbon dioxide from air, making sugars and oxygen. In comparison mammals, reptiles, fish and insects breath oxygen, eat sugars and exhale or deposit carbon. The cycle of life totally depends on light radiated from the sun.

Green plants contain chlorophyll proteins which ironically absorb light from either side of the visible spectrum. Being in the middle, green and yellow are left to reflect making these plants appear that color. When red and blue lights are absorbed, chlorophyll separates water into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen bonds with carbon dioxide forming glucose sugars and oxygen releases into the air. Our atmosphere consists of seventy-eight percent nitrogen. Temperature is a variable for all life forms.

When plants and animals decay carbon remains and when concentrated by fossilization under heat and pressure for a long time become coal, natural gas and oil which burn hot producing heat or mechanical and electrical energy. Under extreme conditions carbon transforms into diamonds, the hardest substance on earth. It is estimated there are hundreds of millions of diamonds in earth’s crust buried too deep to extract.

LIGHT WAVES AND PHOTONS
The sun is basically a massive nuclear reactor fusing hydrogen atoms into helium, converting four million tons of matter into energy per second. When this energy eventually escapes sun’s gravity it radiates at various wave lengths. Longer ones are infrared with shorter ultraviolet and X-rays. Visible light to us is only a short span somewhere in the middle. All waves have a velocity of 186,282 miles per second in a vacuum in outer space. First it was thought radiation is strictly waves, but then realized light bends toward objects with large gravitational pull. Einstein concluded light is made of both waves and particles in his theory of relativity. These particles are called photons with no measurable mass or electric charge. Photons are attributed for exchanging electrons between molecules in photosynthesis and passing electrons from one substance to another in electric solar systems.

PHOTOVOLTAICS
Tangible matter is made of tiny atoms. Atoms contain protons and neutrons forming a nucleus with electrons orbiting around at different distances. Several electrons can be the same distance by orbiting at different angles imagined as clouds or shells. The outer most is the valance orbit. Protons have a positive, neutrons none, and electrons a negative charge. Depending on composition different elements form. They combine into molecules, carbon dioxide and water for example. Electromagnetic force is extremely stronger than gravity at small atomic levels.

Atoms with more protons than electrons have a positive charge and those with more electrons a negative charge. The difference often occur in the outer valance shell. Substances consisting of equal proton and electron charge are semi-conductors. These are made to charge one way or other by adding small amounts of atoms from other material.

Crystalline silicon might not be the best semi-conductor but is abundant and easy to manufacture. Silicon’s ability to stop or allow electricity is essential for computer chips. Originally shining light on some metals produced small amounts electricity. Transparent silicon is more efficient.

SOLAR PANELS
Solar panels are made of several modules subdivided into solar cells. Each cell by itself doesn’t produce much energy. It’s common for sixty cells in a module connected in series, plus to minus, resulting in substantial voltage. Twelve volts is one standard for direct-current. Twelve volt batteries are used in cars. Modules can be connected in parallel by tying negative and positive connections together increasing amperage. The panel is covered with a transparent sheet and solid backing. Several panels connected parallel at a fused combiner boxes make arrays providing more available electricity.

Solar cells made of semi-conductors convert sunlight into electricity. One semi-conductor layer is mixed, called doping, with material having less electrons than protons. Positively charged the P side is bonded by a layer not doped to the N side mixed with extra electrons. The layer in the middle is neutral forming a P-N junction. Photons excite extra electrons displacing them from silicon on the N side. When connected by a wire they want to fill vacant electrons called holes on the P side creating a potential difference across the P-N junction. Voltage forces electrons back to the N side repeating the cycle. If a wire feeds resistive and inductive loads, voltage potential is measured across those devices as well. Solar panels produce direct-current in one direction.

Some solar panels are more efficient than others producing more electricity with the same amount of irradiation. Conversion efficiency is calculated by short circuit current, open circuit voltage and fill factors. Depending on type of silicon and how it’s doped determines electron movement by photons from different light frequencies. Expensive panels have cells with several layers of different semi-conductors increasing electrical production. Panels with transparent coverings resistive to glare but reflecting infrared rays are better. Infrared rays create heat without displacing electrons by photons. Solar panels work best at lower temperatures.

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Photovoltaic or PV systems are proper names for solar electric systems.

The simplest system connects twelve volt devises such as heaters, lights and motors to twelve volt panels. They only operate when sun shines. Adding battery backup charged by some electricity produced allows operation for a while during night or on cloudy days. An advantage for lights at night and locations without power lines, satellites being an extreme example. Controllers prevent batteries from over or under charging. Trade off exists between size of panel or array and number of batteries. No point installing more batteries than panels can charge. Automotive batteries work but lead-acid, deep-cycle ones are made for this purpose charging up to eighty percent storage capacity. Larger solar panels can output much more than twelve volts.

Inverters added to photovoltaic systems decrease or increase voltage and changes direct into alternating current. 120 and 240 volts at 60 cycles per second are standard. Inverters aren’t complicated like variable drives because only one voltage and frequency are created. Inverters should be capable of suppling circuit breakers protecting smaller wires to ac loads. Unless other production sources are connected to PV wiring, it is called a stand-alone photovoltaic system.

Without many solar panels, arrays produce only enough electricity for some devises or supplement energy delivered by generators, windmills and utility companies. Tying sources together requires computer controlled power conditioning equipment insuring electricity is all the same voltage with frequencies in phase. Companies generally supply most power for property and houses, but electricity from other sources reduce that amount lowering utility fees. Renewable energy provided by sun and wind is considered free.

PHOTOVOLTAICS AND THE NEC
The National Electric Code doesn’t determine how solar power is made but that it’s installed efficient and safe. The NEC (NFPA 70) is one volume in an extensive library published by the National Fire Protection Association dedicated to preventing, restricting damage and stopping fires. NFPA also concerns safety for fire fighters and other emergency responders.

Photovoltaic systems are addressed by Article 690 in Chapter 6 titled Special Equipment in the NEC. General Requirements in Part I necessitate installation of PV equipment and all associated wiring and interconnections be performed only by qualified persons with skills, knowledge and safety training to recognize and avoid hazards involved. However, electricians and homeowners become involved with PV systems during troubleshooting and maintenance.

Solar panels exposed to sunlight continue to produce voltage. Voltages often exist on both sides of disconnect switches when other production sources and inverters interconnect. Parts VII & VIII of Chapter 6 make clear Energy Storage Systems and Interconnected Electric Power Productions Sources be installed according to Special Conditions in Chapter 7. PV stand-alone systems are addressed by Articles 690.10 and 710.15.

Throughout the electrical code requirements for circuits, disconnection devices, wiring methods, grounding and bonding, and marking depend on the type of installation. Requirements become complex with PV systems comprised of different voltages and currents. Equipment and components are listed or field labeled appropriate for photovoltaics. Disconnect switches subject to electrical back feeds are suitable and labeled for that purpose. Polarity for direct-current branch circuits more than 60 volts are identified according to Article 210.5(C)(2) with red positive (+) wires and black negative (-) ones or accurately labeled.

Assuring safety for fire fighters, first responders and maintenance personnel, many PV circuits need ground fault or arc fault protection. Inverters and power conditioning equipment contain capacitors storing energy necessitating means of rapid shut-down limiting power output to less than 30 volts and 240 watts within 10 seconds. Disconnects are put at solar panels and between its equipment. The main PV disconnect switch initiates rapid shut-down of the entire system in or on a building, labeled to code and located next to the utility main panel easily found by firefighters. PV service panels also operate remote-controlled disconnects to completely protect buildings from photovoltaic systems. PV system dc circuits cannot be greater than 600 volts on or in one and two family dwellings. Exception for rapid shut-down is made for buildings only containing PV equipment.

CONSIDERATIONS
Solar powered systems are efficient and productive in some geographic locations more than others. Lower latitudes closer the equator receive more daylight and higher altitudes with thinner atmosphere allow more sunshine. Angles solar panels are mounted vertically depend on geographic latitude, although sun is higher during summer than winter months. Solar panels do not work when covered by snow.

Sun’s radiation naturally heat buildings and blocking it with panels mounted on roof tops might be a good idea in the south but create a dilemma farther north. Air conditioning often require more electrical consumption than heating given many furnaces burn fuels. Solar panels mounted on structures away from buildings have an advantage for programmable tracking systems using electric motors to position panels toward the sun as its location changes during the day and throughout seasons.

When a building produced more electricity than used meters ran backwards lowering if not reversing utility costs. Electronic meters are smarter detecting this occurrence. Some electric companies do not refund the difference. Others might but don’t pay the same as they charge to provide it. Some locations where consumption is growing faster than electricity is produced give significant financial incentives to homeowners installing photovoltaic systems. Cost of solar installations compared to utility savings over a period of time at different locations determine efficiency. Solar panels are expected to last about thirty years.

Storage batteries emit toxic vapors possibly creating explosive mixtures, particularly when charging. The room they’re in must have sufficient ventilation eliminating these hazards and have an entrance door designed for quick exit. Not a bad idea housing lead-acid batteries outdoors. Solar battery back-up is certainly an advantage during power outages to keep lights and furnaces working.

Global warming by burning carbon fuels is a prevalent concern and using sun’s energy a popular idea. People want to do their part. Good news is, as solar and wind generated power becomes more efficient with less installation costs industrial companies are finding it economical installing solar and wind farms instead of massive power plants requiring substantial maintenance and large quantities of expensive, transported fuel.

Eberling@www.thndrsns.com

Operating Motors at Variable Speeds

Operating Motors at Variable Speeds

Electric motors are used every day. Ones that easily come to mind are in refrigerators and freezers for pumping freon and heaters blowing warm air around. Not as apparent are those in CD/DVD players and computer hard disk drives. Cars technically use gas engines not discussed here. Household motors are relatively small and easy to start and stop protected by circuit breakers and fuses.

Larger motors are often necessary in commercial facilities. Industrial complexes generate electricity, process food, procure and dispense fuel. Motors can be substantial and harder to control.

Conventional Motor Starters
More current is needed to get a motor running than keep it up to speed particularly when under load. Starting currents can be six times a motor’s rated FLA (full load amperage) for a short time. Sparks created when a switch makes contact between wires or conductors providing electricity with ones feeding big motors can be significant and burn them up.

Electric motor starters use solenoids (electro-magnets) which when energized close contactors quickly. These magnets can be controlled by voltages and currents smaller than what motors require. A 480-volt, three phase motor with 65 FLA can be controlled by a 120-volt, single phase 15-amp circuit. Control circuits with lower ratings are safer to handle and allow pressure and other limit switches with smaller contacts and wires to start and stop large motors.

Electric starters rate in size under NEMA 1 to over 12 depending on horse power of motors. Bigger starters not only take more space but are more expensive. They use time delayed thermal overload devises allowing large starting currents, but trip if persisting over full load amperage.

Larger motors are rated 60 cycles per second, either single or three phase, as provided by utility companies in North America. Because frequency of electrical current going into and out of standard motor starters does not change, motors operate at constant revolutions per minute. They cannot run faster than designed, and if caused to go slower thermal overloads will stop them before damaged by heat. Size and speed of machines operated can be altered with different size pulleys and belts or gears.

Modern electronics devices can control apparatuses more precisely by varying speed of motors.

Advantages Controlling Motor Speed
Ramping a motor gradually to speed results in less wear and tear on it and equipment operated. Loaded conveyor belts incur less damage when rollers they’re pulled by don’t slip when quickly started. Same for fan belts. If a conveyor belt transferring potatoes to a storage bin is loaded by hand instead of a hopper with a couple of potatoes on the belt every few feet dropping at a very fast rate, it makes sense to slow the whole process down.

Electronic devices controlling motor drives no longer only switch on or off but monitor activity. They output 1 to 5 volts or 4 to 20 milli-amps as pressure increases and decreases or temperature goes up and down. Values don’t start at zero since no signal indicates monitors aren’t working correctly or a broken wire to central processing units which sound that alarm. These wires should be shielded and grounded at one end to drain off surrounding electrical interference. They may be smaller than #16 gauge but that can cause problems ensuring proper termination and conductivity.

Benefits to calibrated monitors are speeding a pump up on low pressure and slowing it down when higher instead of continually starting and stopping the pump motor or making a fan on a heating or cooling devise go faster or slower as temperature varies making it more constant in rooms.

Other advantages controlling speed has to do with motors themselves. Power factors being decimals significantly less than one are not desirable when supplying power to incandescent lights or motors. This occurs when sine wave frequency of current starts later lagging that of voltage. Slowing a motor down by decreasing frequency lessens this problem resulting in amperage more constant with horse power. Electricity a fan or pump motor uses is proportional to the mathematical cube of speed. Slowing them down by twenty percent uses fifty percent less energy. Ramping motors up to speed reduces high starting currents.

Variable Frequency Drives
Variable frequency drives (VFDs) regulate revolutions-per minute (speed) and rotational force (torque) of motors designed for alternating current by changing frequency and voltage to them. Drives are also often referred to as AC, variable speed (VSDs), adjustable frequency (AFDs), adjustable speed (ASDs), variable frequency converters (VFCs), inverter drives and micro-drives.

Some use voltage source conversion (VSI), current source conversion (CSI), load-commutated inversion (LCI) or pulse-width modulation (PWM) inverters. Depending on the application one type might be more desirable with higher efficiency, reduced cost and increasing power factors or lessen clogging and pulsating rotation of motor shafts. They all rectify alternating current into direct current to an inverter converting electricity back to ac again but with different frequencies and voltages depending on 4-20 milli-amp inputs affecting speed and torque. Computers in VFDs programmed by operators interpret inputs and amperage to achieve desired results.

Some variable frequency drives are designed to accept direct current from a power source and convert it to alternating current. Great for running ac motors by batteries charged from solar panels or in electric driven vehicles. Other VFDs are designed or programmed to convert single-phase alternating current if only available at locations by utility companies into three-phase for those motors and vise-versa.

Harmonic Distortion
Harmonics are often favorable in music. When a guitar string is pressed to the fret in the middle a higher note is achieved called a second harmonic. If pressed third way up or down different frequency vibrations occur called 3rd order harmonics. The combination of different notes may make pleasant sounds.

Harmonics aren’t useful in electric circuits. Current in three phase circuits are meant to be balanced canceling each other out back to the power source thereby alleviating a fourth neutral wire. Generators produce three phase sine waves by armatures 120 degrees apart wound with wires revolving in magnetic fields sixty times a second. Intent is for VFDs to make perfect sine waves but changing frequency to vary motor speed is unaffordable with semi-conductor devices available now. Three phase motors do not have a neutral wire.

Rectifying alternating current into dc using capacitors and diodes has been around for a while but today computers can replicate sinusoidal waves based on differential calculus. Converting ac to dc by VFDs don’t require computer assistance but changing current back to ac again does. Information from computed sine waves are transmitted on high frequency carrier waves to full-wave bridge inverters made with diodes or insulated gate bipolar transistors. IGBTs are much larger than conventional transistors. Transistors are based on outdated vacuum tubes where trivial voltages from radio waves are amplified repeatedly until capable of driving audible speakers and TV screens. This made transistor radios smaller and powered by batteries.

Sine waves are simulated by space vector pulse-width modulation. IGBTs operate on a different principle called sinusoidal pulse-width modulation. Different frequencies of sine waves are converted into switching algorithms by computers which do not change maximum output voltage but allow transistors to produce varied square waves of equal amplitude. Minute increments of time called integers between pulses and their durations determine output voltage and current frequency. Carrier frequencies from computed sine waves should be greater than ten times (2,000 to 16,000 hz) power output frequencies. Square waves leaving inverters are pronounced and cumbersome. Six pulse rectification and inversion result in approximately 25% total harmonic distortion where 18 pulse creates around 5% THD with less clipping. Everything to do with electrical circuits and devices means more is better until size and cost are considered.

Harmonic Filters
Made with the same parts, motors are basically generators in reverse. If armatures rotating in magnetic fields produce electricity, then motors can convert it back to mechanical energy. Adverse effects running motors with distorted sine waves from VFDs are apparent. It is required by NEMA standards these motors be designed definite-purpose inverter fed duty and withstand high surge voltages, can run at low speeds without overheating, and endure 200% torque overload for one minute. It is desirable to dampen or mitigate harmonic power distortion before getting to inverter duty motors. Long wires from VFDs amplify distortion due to impedance. Shielded, flexible VFD cables are offered if longer lengths are necessary. Transformers being inductors themselves dampen irregularities to motors. Output filters run the risk of damaging drives. High carrier frequencies in drives create sparking in motor bearings resulting in their deterioration.

Not as critical to operation is harmonic distortion back-fed on transmission lines supplying VFDs. Line harmonics result when converting ac to dc with voltage and current distortion. Chopping or clipping sine waves leave voltage spikes. Considered negligible with small motors, large VFDs create distortion with other motors, lighting and electronic equipment connected to the line before them.

Utility companies require filters before feeding substantial inverter drives. Not a bad idea if the line also supplies your residence. Active filters inject opposite harmonics using diodes or IGBTs requiring computer control. More common are passive filters with inductors and capacitors dampening and draining distortion to ground and providing power factor corrections.

VFDs sometimes have an efficiency loss up to five percent producing some heat. Passive harmonic filters utilize resistors, inductors and capacitors considerably bigger than in electronic circuits. It is their purpose to burn off or drain unwanted power distortions. Size and more heat dissipation requires them in separate enclosures away from drives.

Dynamic Breaking
Motors are similar to generators. If motors run faster than power intends electricity is back fed into the supply. Because conventional motor starters open contactors when stopping motors, back-fed electricity has nowhere to go causing motors to stop faster. VFDs reduce speed or stop motors by decreasing current but back-fed energy remains in the system.

Some CSI and LCI type drives are Regenerative VFDs which recover breaking energy meant to return to the power source. If motors are sped-up and slowed down often there may be some economic advantage to recovering this energy provided a place to store it such as capacitors or batteries. Utility companies don’t want distorted power on their line.

Commonly used are dynamic breaks, and like filters drain to ground or burn off undesirable energy. Breaks get much hotter making it even more important putting them in separate enclosures.

Misconceptions
Measurement of horsepower of engines and motors was originally derived by actual horses. A weighted wagon an average size horse can pull a given distance and time became one horsepower. If weight doubled or half as much time needed to pull it, two horses are required. Two horses tethered to pull the wagon with original weight and speed means each horse works half as hard resulting in one horsepower. One linear mechanical horsepower is 33,000 foot-pounds per minute (550 ft-lbf/second) requiring 746 electrical watts (volts x amps).

Motors rotate, and linear movement converts to rotational torque equal to horsepower times 5252 divided by rpms. Motor designed for specified revolutions-per-minute equipped with larger pullies on their shafts pull loads at less speeds but higher torque. Lesser horsepower might now be needed than what the motor is rated.

One misapprehension is if a twenty-horsepower motor is only needed to run a pump or conveyor belt, then a forty-horsepower motor at half rpm can be operated by a 20 hp VFD. It takes more energy to ramp a large motor to speed and if the load exceeds 20 hp for some reason smaller VFDs might be damaged. Better to use a 40 hp VFD at half capacity to run a 40 hp motor with lesser loads.

Another misconception is utility transformers providing power can be half the size if a motor runs at half the speed. The same as the above applies. KVA ratings of single-phase transformers used to operate three-phase motors should be increased by the 1.73 conversion factor. A 20 hp, three phase motor fed single phase to harmonic filters and dynamic brakes means these are rated 20 hp when verified by manufacturers.

Article 430, Part X gives more information and installation requirements by the 2020 National Electric Code for Adjustable-Speed Drive Systems.

Future Uses
Many electronic inventions improve with time. As VFD technology becomes better it will be used more often in the future.

Eberling@www.thndrsns.com